“Theoretical and practical aspects of prepositions in modern english” free essay sample

There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Many of prepositions have more than one meaning. Prepositions pose more problems for the non-native speaker or learner of English than any other part of speech. Why? Prepositions are just little words that never change in form. They are pronounces softly, in unstressed syllables. They aren’t even given capital letters in book titles. Native speakers choose the correct ones without thinking. But for non-native speakers they can be confusing. Many learners and teachers sometimes view the usage and meaning of prepositions as a secret that can’t be unlocked. However, if we examine the syntactic environments of such key prepositions systematically, patterns of usage and core meaning concepts emerge which can aid explanation and learning. The prepositions at, in and on are often used in English to talk about places and times. Sometimes the choice of one over another in a particular phrase or sentence seems arbitrary. However if we analyse patterns of occurrence we can identify key concepts in meaning and usage which consistently apply and can be used as a platform for learning. The problems of the theme are: 1. They are difficult to define without using other prepositions. 2. They do not have equivalent meanings in other languages. 3. Many prepositions are also used as adverbs or conjunctions. 4. Two or more prepositions may have the same meaning and sometimes they are interchangeable and sometimes not. 5. Many prepositions are used in expressions where their meaning is very different from what might be expected. 6. A preposition in combination with another word may have different meaning. The object of the research is Preposition as a part of speech. The subject of the research is theoretical and practical aspects of using the prepositions in modern English. The aim of the research is analysis and summing up of the knowledge in theoretical and practical aspects of prepositions in modern English. In accordance with the aim of investigation the following tasks were set: †¢ to define the function of preposition in English language; †¢ to analyze the most frequent types of prepositions; †¢ to describe the importance of learning prepositions in Modern English. The paper consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusion, resume, reference list of the publications used. CHAPTER 1. FUNCTION WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. PREPOSITIONS IN MODERN ENGLISH 1. 1. Function words in the English language. Function words are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. They signal the structural relationships that words have to one another and are the glue that holds sentences together. Thus, they serve as important elements to the structures of sentences. Function words are like thumbtacks. We dont notice thumbtacks; we look at the calendar or the poster they are holding up. If we were to take the tacks away, the calendar and the poster would fall down. Likewise, if we took the function words out of speech, it would be hard to figure out what was going on. Function words are a closed class. A person cannot easily invent a new preposition or conjunction [12]. As function words belong to the closed class of words in grammar in that it is very uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech, whereas in the open class of words (that is, nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) new words may be added readily (such as slang words, technical terms, and adoptions and adaptations of foreign words). Each function word either gives some grammatical information on other words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be isolated from other words, or it may indicate the speakers mental model as to what is being said. The distinction between function and lexical words has been very fruitful for linguistic description. So-called analytical languages, such as Chinese, are characterized by an abundance of function words. In contrast, function words are typically lacking in the speech of young children, certain kinds of aphasia, and telegraphic speech. It is also well known that languages rarely borrow function words from other languages or make up new ones (hence their status as closed class). Most recent innovations in the English vocabulary, such as pizza, angst, fax, e-mail, phat, AIDS, website, browser, screenager, to surf, Nethead, and techno-babble are lexical rather than functional in nature [26; 29]. Function words add mainly grammatical information, which means that they are defined above all by their syntactic behavior. Most traditional grammars assumed (and their descendents continue to assume) that the structure of sentences and phrases is determined mainly by lexical words. Function words were regarded as mere additions to lexical phrases. Thus, the sentence The rabbit will see the fox was analysed as a noun phrase the rabbit, followed by a verb phrase will see the fox. The determiner the was thus an addition to the noun phrase, and the auxiliary will was added to the verb phrase. A shift in this thinking came in the 1980s within the framework of generative grammar. From then on, auxiliaries were attributed with an independent contribution to the sentence structure. However, function words still did not determine the categorial status of a phrasefor example, a phrase such as the rabbit continued to be regarded as a noun phrase containing a determiner. This view changed radically by the mid-1980s, as function words were increasingly interpreted as the determinants of the categorial status of sentence elements. To use the technical terminology, function words were â€Å"projecting to a phrase† or â€Å"heading a phrase. † Determiners, for example, came to be regarded as the head of determiner phrasesthat is, the rabbit was now interpreted as a determiner phrase the . Containing the noun phrase rabbit. â€Å"Functional projections† were thus assigned a structure similar to â€Å"lexical phrases. † Research in the late 1980s and 1990s revolved around the question of exactly which functional projections a sentence may contain. Each function word expressing a grammatical function was soon regarded as a main structural building block of the sentence. The increasing importance of function words in linguistic theories went hand-in-hand with an increasingly abstract description of sentence structure. This shift provided many empirical and theoretical advantages. First, sentence structure could now be divided into three functional domains: (1) a lexical domain around the verb, which establishes semantic relations between the main sentence elements; (2) a grammatical domain around the auxiliary, which establishes grammatical relations such as agreement (the auxiliary agrees in number and person with the subject: I am/She is/They are leaving. ); (3) a discourse domain around the complementizer that, which links an embedded clause to a main clause (I know that this is true or I wonder whether this is true) [8; 26]. Second, differences between languages could be explained by how the function words, and the domains they define, were used. For instance, the so-called verb-second languages such as German, Middle English, Dutch, and Swedish move the verb to the complementizer domain, whereas languages such as English refrain from doing so. The word order of the equivalent German sentence Yesterday the rabbit saw the fox would thus be Yesterday saw the rabbit the fox. Differences between even unrelated languages were reduced to very basic principles. Function words and lexical words are not sharply distinct categories but rather form a continuum. Certain classes of words can thus share features with both prototypical lexical words and prototypical function words. The English preposition is a case in point: some prepositions have lexical meaning, such as location (behind) and direction (toward); others have little meaning (of or to). Many are used to introduce sentences (after, for, like) and are therefore similar to prototypical function words, namely complementizers [26]. Grammatical meaning can be expressed in different ways. English uses independent auxiliaries to express present or past tense (I am leaving vs. I was leaving) but also inflects the verb for the same purpose (I think vs. I thought). Languages exhibit great variation along these lines: some languages express all grammatical meaning via independent function words and are called â€Å"analytic. † So-called synthetic languages, on the other hand, employ inflection and other markings on lexical words throughout. This distinction between analytic and synthetic languages also represents a continuum, and languages can change in this respect over time. Old English made extensive use of grammatical markings on lexical words. English has lost much of this capability since then and introduced auxiliaries to fill the gap. In fact, the auxiliary will used to be a lexical verb in Old English, but it lost its meaning (â€Å"to want†) when it was recruited for expressing future tense. In modern theoretical approaches, which tend to focus more on underlying differences rather than surface variation, the distinction between analytic and synthetic languages becomes negligible [29]. In short, function words have little lexical meaning and no stress. In traditional grammars, they do not have their own projection or phrase, whereas in some modern approaches they do. They are very similar (and are historically related) to grammatical markers on lexical words. There are only about 300 function words in English. They might be prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, modal verbs, auxiliary verbs and particles (Application A) [31]. So, the function words serve as important elements to the structures of sentences. They have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. They signal the structural relationships that words have to one another and are the glue that holds sentences together. 1. 2. Prepositions as a part of function words in Modern English. Classification of prepositions Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs). In modern English prepositions serve as a means for expressing the relations of nouns, pronouns, numerals or gerunds to the other words in a sentence. These relations in the Ukrainian language are sent by means of case endings or case endings in combination with prepositions. Prepositions play a great role in word-building, they are included in different word-combinations and expressions: e. g. at last, at first, at home, at night, in vain, on foot, forever, by no means, by the way, etc [17]. Prepositions can also occur in post position with: nouns (interest in, need for), adjectives (familiar with, sure of), participles (married to, made of), and verbs (give up, look forward). In this situation, the composite can be thought of as a unit. On its shape the prepositions are divided on simple, complex and compound. The simple prepositions are those which are not dividable on componential parts. We refer here the most ancient English prepositions which are mostly monosyllabic, such as in, on, at, by, to, with, from, of etc. Simple prepositions can possess a varied number of semantic and contextual meanings: She sat on the sofa. He is going to the market. He fell off the ladder. There is some water in the bottle. She is about seven. They sat around the table. The cat was hiding under the bed. Complex prepositions are those which were formed by means of word blending: e. g. inside, outside, throughout, upon, into etc. The Compound prepositions are those which mainly present a combination of noun, adjective, participle or adverb with simple preposition or conjunction, which is composed by united meaning. The Compound prepositions mainly have one meaning, corresponding to the meaning of a meaningful word falling into the compound of the preposition. To the compound prepositions we pertain the following: because of, instead of, by means of, as far as, by force of, in spite of, in front of, in accordance with, contrary to, opposite to, as compared with etc. : He fell into the river. She sat between her kids. He sat beside her. There is nothing inside the jar. The teacher stood behind the desk. There is also a small group of prepositions, which have originated from participles and have saved the form of a participle: e. g. during; including; concerning, regarding, etc. [28;14]: There was little chance of success, notwithstanding they decided to go ahead. You did the job well, considering your age and inexperience [30]. We divide prepositions into three important kinds: 1. Preposition of Time (Application B). We use: at for a precise time; in for months, years, centuries and long periods; on for days and dates. 2. Preposition of Place (Application C). In general, we use: at for a point; in for an enclosed space; on for a surface. 3. Other Prepositions (Application D). As has been said, prepositions are short words that usually stand in front of nouns. Prepositions play a great role in word-building, they are included in different word-combinations and expressions. CHAPTER 2. THE PRACTICAL USE OF PREPOSITIONS 2. 1. Preposition combinations Prepositions and the rules concerning their usage can be confusing to learners of English as a second language. Basically, prepositions are connecting words that join objects to other parts of sentences. Preposition choice is determined by the noun, verb, adjective or particle which precedes it. Noun + Preposition Combinations. English has many examples of prepositions coming after nouns. In such cases, the prepositions are often followed by a phrase containing a noun, as in example (a) below. They can also be followed by a noun, as in example (b), or an -ing verb, as in example (c) [6]: a) Scientists at the research institute think they are close finding a solution to the problem. b) Everyone was surprised by his lack of concern. c) We need to call an expert at plumbing as soon as possible. Here are a few more nouns and prepositions which are used together: the use of a solution to influence on evidence of the cost of an increase in a possibility of danger of the price of a reason for a supply of a method of a lack of belief in the cause of difficulty with Verb + Preposition Combinations. Many English prepositions also follow verbs. Sometimes they introduce a phrase that contains a noun, as in example (a). They can also introduce a noun, as in example (b), or an -ing verb, as in example (c) [6]: a) I dont know how long we can depend on his generosity. He has already done so much for us. b) Many of the towns residents relied on neighbours for help during the flood. c) She believes in helping people who are less fortunate than her. Here are some other verbs and prepositions that are used together: I insist on . . . He can deal with . . . This can result in . . . Do you plan on . . . We belong to . . . This could lead to . . . My answer will depend on . . . You can rely on . . . They fight for . . . We fight against . . . We contribute to . . . I believe in . . . Adjective + Preposition Combinations. English also has many instances of prepositions coming after adjectives. In many cases, the prepositions precede phrases containing nouns, as in example (a), or pronouns, as in example (b). It is also possible for the prepositions to precede an -ing verb, as in (c) [6]: a) I was amazed at all the improvements. b) We were all shocked by his behaviour. c) Because the exam was more difficult than I expected, Im worried about passing. Here are some more adjectives and prepositions that are used together: proud of identical to different from tired of related to opposed to satisfied with eager for based on famous for necessary for excited about Common Sentence Errors with Prepositions. There are three common types of sentence errors which involve prepositions. 1. Using a preposition which doesnt fit the context of the sentence: I was amazed from all the improvements. Wrong! I was amazed at all the improvements. Right! 2. Omitting a preposition that belongs in a sentence: I was amazed all the improvements. Wrong! I was amazed at all the improvements. Right! 3. Adding a preposition which is not needed in the sentence: I was amazed at that the improvements were done so quickly. Wrong! I was amazed that the improvements were done so quickly. Right! In short, word combinations and preposition combinations are extremely important in the English language. There is now rule or reason why these words go together. So, they must be learned â€Å"by heart†. 2. 2. Interesting Preposition exercises Understanding and using appropriate prepositions of place and motion are often difficult for students to grasp and it takes time for them to become comfortable with these types of words. They become confused when there are a host of similar prepositions and often need plenty of help and clarification. As is often the case, visualization is a key element to learning and can make the process much easier and enjoyable for students and teacher alike. Here are three games which make the process of learning prepositions fun for all parties [30; 15]: Exercise 1: Preposition Tree Teacher draws a nice big tree on the board. Next teacher asks students to call out items which are specific to trees. If a student yells, â€Å"bird†, draw a bird somewhere on the tree and ask the class where it is. Obviously, the answer should be that, â€Å"the bird is in the three. † Try a number of these exercises until they become comfortable with the use of the prepositions of place. Draw a boy sitting under the tree eating an apple. Ask, â€Å"where is the boy? † and when they get this right, ask, â€Å"now where is the apple? † It becomes slightly more difficult. The possibilities here are limitless and it gives the kids the opportunity to visualize the meaning of individual prepositions, providing them with the know how to differentiate them and use them accurately. You can even have students come to the front of the class to draw their own ideas. A student might draw a cow on top of the tree. Although not an accurate representation of a cow’s niche, it will still afford the opportunity for students to say, â€Å"the cow is on (or on top of) the tree,† improving their use of prepositions of place (Application E). Note 1: If time allows, it might also be fun to construct a tree – make it a class project – and have the students attach little figures, birds, critters, people, etc at various places in and around the tree and have them come up with the appropriate prepositions. Note 1: Teaching negatives. If the boy is under the tree, help the students learn where the boy isn’t. â€Å"He is under the tree, so he isn’t†¦. † Wait for the answer. Exercise 2: Preposition Street Prepositions of motion present another challenge to teachers because they have to find a way to explain how things move, within the confines of the classroom. There are number of classic tactics, but a personal favorite is to draw a large city street, complete with some parked cars, traffic, buildings and people (Application F). Draw someone getting into or out of a car and ask, â€Å"what is he/she doing? † Eventually, someone will say that the man/woman is getting into/out of his/her car, or getting on/off the bus. Next, focus on pedestrians. Look at two people walking past each other and ask, â€Å"what are they doing? † Give praise when the class replies that, â€Å"they are walking past each other. † As was the case with the tree, the possibilities are limitless and only bound by one’s imagination. Like the preposition tree, when students become more comfortable, call them to the front of the class and have them draw their own ideas. Exercise 3: Preposition â€Å"I spy with my little eye† This is a pretty straight forward game but may require some explanation if the students are not aware of how to play I Spy. Once this has been made clear, the teacher picks an object in a room – for example the door – and says, â€Å"I spy with my little eye something that is rectangular/square/red/whatever. Students try to decipher the answer by asking questions with prepositions: For example, is it next to the window? No it isn’t, or yes it is. Once a student guesses the correct object, it is his/her turn to look around the room and â€Å"spy† an object for the rest of the class to discover. Finally, learning prepositions is a key element to the development of a student’s language skills. They are often thought of as boring, which is in part why students often have such a hard time with them. They don’t enjoy learning about them and therefore don’t learn them as well as other language elements. However, with these and other games, students will see that prepositions can be fun and they will want to learn. CONCLUSIONS In modern English prepositions serve as a means for expressing the relations of nouns, pronouns, numerals or gerunds to the other words in a sentence. They play a great role in word-building. Prepositions pose more problems for the non-native speaker or learner of English than any other part of speech. Prepositions are just little words that never change in form. They are pronounces softly, in unstressed syllables. They aren’t even given capital letters in book titles. Native speakers choose the correct ones without thinking. But for non-native speakers they can be confusing. There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English and learning useful phrases off by heart. Learning prepositions is a key element to the development of a student’s language skills. They are often thought of as boring, which is in part why students often have such a hard time with them. They don’t enjoy learning about them and therefore don’t learn them as well as other language elements. However, with games, students will see that prepositions can be fun and they will want to learn them. RESUME There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of the thousands of other words. Prepositions are important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. So, social and pedagogical insight of the problem defines the topic of our course paper: â€Å"Theoretical and practical aspects of prepositions in Modern English†. The course paper consists of the introduction, two parts and 6 applications. The general namber is 30 pages. The list of the used literature consists of 32 sources. The first part of the work outlines using prepositions as a part of function words in Modern English and shows classifications of prepositions. The second part points out preposition combinations with other words and interesting preposition exercises for easier learning prepositions at school. Key words: function words, preposition, classification, combinations, exercises, simple preposition, complex preposition, compound preposition, time, place.